Resources

References

Peer-reviewed primary literature, consensus criteria, and standard textbooks cited throughout the atlas. Click any inline marker in a module to jump here; the corresponding entry will be highlighted.

  1. Adrion C, Fischer CS, Wagner J, Gürkov R, Mansmann U, Strupp M, BEMED Study Group
    Efficacy and safety of betahistine treatment in patients with Meniere's disease: primary results of a long term, multicentre, double blind, randomised, placebo controlled, dose defining trial (BEMED trial).
    BMJ. 2016;352:h6816. doi:10.1136/bmj.h6816
  2. Almohammed BA, Aldosari MA, Alkhattabi MN, Alhamad AS, Aldihan AT, Alotaibi MM, Alarfaj OF, Alhabradi NA, Bin Sumayah RM
    Prophylactic management of vestibular migraine: a systematic review.
    Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology. 2025;12(10):2087–2102. doi:10.1002/acn3.70234
  3. Alroughani R, Boyko A
    Pediatric multiple sclerosis: a review.
    BMC Neurology. 2018;18(1):27. doi:10.1186/s12883-018-1026-3
  4. Amarenco P, Hauw JJ
    Cerebellar infarction in the territory of the superior cerebellar artery: a clinicopathologic study of 33 cases.
    Neurology. 1990;40(9):1383–1390. doi:10.1212/wnl.40.9.1383
  5. Arbusow V, Schulz P, Strupp M, Dieterich M, von Reinhardstoettner A, Rauch E, Brandt T
    Distribution of herpes simplex virus type 1 in human geniculate and vestibular ganglia: implications for vestibular neuritis.
    Annals of Neurology. 1999;46(3):447–449. doi:10.1002/1531-8249(199909)46:3<416::AID-ANA20>3.0.CO;2-W
  6. Argyriou AA, Cavaletti G, Briani C, et al.
    Clinical pattern and associations of oxaliplatin acute neurotoxicity: a prospective study in 170 patients with colorectal cancer.
    Cancer. 2013;119(2):438–444. doi:10.1002/cncr.27732
  7. Ashizawa T, Öz G, Paulson HL
    Spinocerebellar ataxias: prospects and challenges for therapy development.
    Nature Reviews Neurology. 2018;14(10):590–605. doi:10.1038/s41582-018-0051-6
  8. Asprella Libonati G
    Diagnostic and therapeutic management of horizontal semicircular canal benign paroxysmal positional vertigo.
    Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica. 2005;25(5):277–283.
  9. Baloh RW
    Vestibular neuritis.
    New England Journal of Medicine. 2003;348(11):1027–1032. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp021154
  10. Baloh RW, Honrubia V, Kerber KA
    Baloh and Honrubia's Clinical Neurophysiology of the Vestibular System.
    Oxford University Press; 2011. 4th ed..
  11. Basura GJ, Adams ME, Monfared A, Schwartz SR, Antonelli PJ, Burkard R, Bush ML, Bykowski J, Colandrea M, Derebery J, et al.
    Clinical practice guideline: Ménière's disease.
    Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 2020;162(2_suppl):S1–S55. doi:10.1177/0194599820909438
  12. Belden CJ, Weg N, Minor LB, Zinreich SJ
    CT evaluation of bone dehiscence of the superior semicircular canal as a cause of sound- and/or pressure-induced vertigo.
    Radiology. 2003;226(2):337–343. doi:10.1148/radiol.2262010897
  13. Bhattacharyya N, Gubbels SP, Schwartz SR, et al.
    Clinical practice guideline: benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (update).
    Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 2017;156(3_suppl):S1–S47. doi:10.1177/0194599816689667
  14. Brandt T, Dieterich M
    Phobischer Attacken-Schwankschwindel, ein neues Syndrom?.
    Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift. 1986;128:247–250.
  15. Carey JP, Minor LB, Nager GT
    Dehiscence or thinning of bone overlying the superior semicircular canal in a temporal bone survey.
    Archives of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 2000;126(2):137–147. doi:10.1001/archotol.126.2.137
  16. Carlson ML, Link MJ
    Vestibular schwannomas.
    New England Journal of Medicine. 2021;384(14):1335–1348. doi:10.1056/NEJMra2020394
  17. Compston A, Coles A
    Multiple sclerosis.
    Lancet. 2008;372(9648):1502–1517. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61620-7
  18. Curthoys IS
    The new vestibular stimuli: sound and vibration—anatomical, physiological and clinical evidence.
    Experimental Brain Research. 2017;235(4):957–972. doi:10.1007/s00221-017-4874-y
  19. Dalmau J, Rosenfeld MR
    Paraneoplastic syndromes of the CNS.
    Lancet Neurology. 2008;7(4):327–340. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70060-7
  20. Dieterich M, Brandt T
    Functional brain imaging of peripheral and central vestibular disorders.
    Brain. 2008;131(10):2538–2552. doi:10.1093/brain/awn042
  21. Dix MR, Hallpike CS
    The pathology, symptomatology and diagnosis of certain common disorders of the vestibular system.
    Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 1952;45(6):341–354.
  22. Eatock RA, Songer JE
    Vestibular hair cells and afferents: two channels for head motion signals.
    Annual Review of Neuroscience. 2011;34:501–534. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113710
  23. Edlow JA, Carpenter C, Akhter M, Khoujah D, Marcolini E, Meurer WJ, Morrill D, Naples JG, Ohle R, Omron R, Sharif S, Siket M, Upadhye S, Silva LOJE, Sundberg E, Tartt K, Vanni S, Newman-Toker DE, Bellolio F
    Guidelines for reasonable and appropriate care in the emergency department (GRACE-3): acute dizziness and vertigo in the emergency department.
    Academic Emergency Medicine. 2023;30(5):442–486. doi:10.1111/acem.14728
  24. Epley JM
    The canalith repositioning procedure: for treatment of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo.
    Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 1992;107(3):399–404. doi:10.1177/019459989210700310
  25. Filippi M, Bar-Or A, Piehl F, Preziosa P, Solari A, Vukusic S, Rocca MA
    Multiple sclerosis.
    Nature Reviews Disease Primers. 2018;4(1):43. doi:10.1038/s41572-018-0041-4
  26. Fitzgerald DC
    Perilymphatic fistulas. Clinical criteria.
    Otolaryngology Clinics of North America. 1992;25(4):873–880.
  27. Frohman EM, Frohman TC, Zee DS, McColl R, Galetta S
    The neuro-ophthalmology of multiple sclerosis.
    Lancet Neurology. 2005;4(2):111–121. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(05)00992-0
  28. Gioacchini FM, Alicandri-Ciufelli M, Kaleci S, Scarpa A, Cassandro E, Re M
    Outcomes and complications in superior semicircular canal dehiscence surgery: a systematic review.
    Laryngoscope. 2016;126(5):1218–1224. doi:10.1002/lary.25524
  29. Goldberg JM, Fernández C
    Physiology of peripheral neurons innervating semicircular canals of the squirrel monkey. II. Response to sinusoidal stimulation and dynamics of peripheral vestibular system.
    Journal of Neurophysiology. 1971;34(4):661–675. doi:10.1152/jn.1971.34.4.661
  30. Goodhill V
    Sudden deafness and round window rupture.
    Laryngoscope. 1971;81(9):1462–1474. doi:10.1288/00005537-197109000-00010
  31. Graus F, Vogrig A, Muñiz-Castrillo S, et al.
    Updated diagnostic criteria for paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes.
    Neurology Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation. 2021;8(4):e1014. doi:10.1212/NXI.0000000000001014
  32. Gurley KL, Edlow JA
    Avoiding misdiagnosis in patients with posterior circulation ischemia: a narrative review.
    Academic Emergency Medicine. 2019;26(11):1273–1284. doi:10.1111/acem.13830
  33. Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DS, Aeschlimann DP
    Gluten-related disorders: gluten ataxia.
    Digestive Diseases. 2015;33(2):264–268. doi:10.1159/000369546
  34. Hall SF, Ruby RR, McClure JA
    The mechanics of benign paroxysmal vertigo.
    Journal of Otolaryngology. 1979;8(2):151–158.
  35. Hallpike CS, Cairns H
    Observations on the pathology of Ménière's syndrome.
    Journal of Laryngology and Otology. 1938;53(10):625–655. doi:10.1017/S0022215100003947
  36. Halmagyi GM, Curthoys IS
    A clinical sign of canal paresis.
    Archives of Neurology. 1988;45(7):737–739. doi:10.1001/archneur.1988.00520310043015
  37. Harding AE
    Friedreich's ataxia: a clinical and genetic study of 90 families with an analysis of early diagnostic criteria and intrafamilial clustering of clinical features.
    Brain. 1981;104(3):589–620. doi:10.1093/brain/104.3.589
  38. Heinrich UR, Brieger J, Selivanova O, Feltens R, Eimermacher A, Schäfer D, Mann WJ
    Occurrence of a round window membrane rupture in patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss.
    BMC Ear, Nose and Throat Disorders. 2012;12:14. doi:10.1186/1472-6815-12-14
  39. Highstein SM, Holstein GR
    The anatomy of the vestibular nuclei.
    Progress in Brain Research. 2006;151:157–203. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(05)51006-9
  40. Hilton MP, Pinder DK
    The Epley (canalith repositioning) manoeuvre for benign paroxysmal positional vertigo.
    Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014;12:CD003162. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003162.pub3
  41. Honnorat J, Antoine JC
    Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes.
    Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. 2007;2:22. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-2-22
  42. Horii A, Mitani K, Kitahara T, Uno A, Takeda N, Kubo T
    Paroxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, reduces depressive symptoms and subjective handicaps in patients with dizziness.
    Otology & Neurotology. 2007;28(4):560–565. doi:10.1097/MAO.0b013e3180312712
  43. Hornibrook J
    Perilymph fistula: fifty years of controversy.
    ISRN Otolaryngology. 2012;2012:281248. doi:10.5402/2012/281248
  44. Huang TC, Wang SJ, Kheradmand A
    Vestibular migraine: an update on current understanding and future directions.
    Cephalalgia. 2020;40(1):107–121. doi:10.1177/0333102419869317
  45. Hudspeth AJ
    How the ear's works work.
    Nature. 1989;341(6241):397–404. doi:10.1038/341397a0
  46. Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS)
    The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition.
    Cephalalgia. 2018;38(1):1–211. doi:10.1177/0333102417738202
  47. Ikezono T, Matsumura T, Matsuda H, Shikaze S, Saitoh S, Shindo S, Lin J, Honda K, Pawankar R, Watanabe A, Yagi T
    The diagnostic performance of a novel ELISA for human CTP (Cochlin-tomoprotein) to detect perilymph leakage.
    PLOS ONE. 2018;13(1):e0191498. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191498
  48. Indovina I, Riccelli R, Chiarella G, Petrolo C, Augimeri A, Giofrè L, Lacquaniti F, Staab JP, Passamonti L
    Role of the insula and vestibular system in patients with chronic subjective dizziness: an fMRI study using sound-evoked vestibular stimulation.
    Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 2015;9:334. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00334
  49. Kalla R, Strupp M
    Aminopyridines and acetyl-DL-leucine: new therapies in cerebellar disorders.
    Current Neuropharmacology. 2019;17(1):7–13. doi:10.2174/1570159X16666180905093535
  50. Kattah JC, Talkad AV, Wang DZ, Hsieh YH, Newman-Toker DE
    HINTS to diagnose stroke in the acute vestibular syndrome: three-step bedside oculomotor examination more sensitive than early MRI diffusion-weighted imaging.
    Stroke. 2009;40(11):3504–3510. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.551234
  51. Kerber KA, Brown DL, Lisabeth LD, Smith MA, Morgenstern LB
    Stroke among patients with dizziness, vertigo, and imbalance in the emergency department: a population-based study.
    Stroke. 2006;37(10):2484–2487. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000240329.48263.0d
  52. Kim JS
    Internuclear ophthalmoplegia as an isolated or predominant symptom of brainstem infarction.
    Neurology. 2004;62(9):1491–1496. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000123093.37069.6D
  53. Klockgether T, Mariotti C, Paulson HL
    Spinocerebellar ataxia.
    Nature Reviews Disease Primers. 2019;5(1):24. doi:10.1038/s41572-019-0074-3
  54. Kohut RI, Hinojosa R, Budetti JA
    Perilymphatic fistula: a histopathologic study.
    Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology. 1992;101(5):412–420. doi:10.1177/000348949210100506
  55. Lee H, Sohn SI, Cho YW, Lee SR, Ahn BH, Park BR, Baloh RW
    Cerebellar infarction presenting with isolated vertigo: frequency and vascular topographical patterns.
    Neurology. 2006;67(7):1178–1183. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000238500.02302.b4
  56. Leigh RJ, Zee DS
    The Neurology of Eye Movements.
    Oxford University Press; 2015. 5th ed..
  57. Leigh RJ, Zee DS
    The Neurology of Eye Movements (5th ed.).
    Oxford University Press; 2015.
  58. Lempert T, Olesen J, Furman J, Waterston J, Seemungal B, Carey J, Bisdorff A, Versino M, Evers S, Newman-Toker D
    Vestibular migraine: diagnostic criteria. Consensus document of the Bárány Society and the International Headache Society.
    Journal of Vestibular Research. 2012;22(4):167–172. doi:10.3233/VES-2012-0453
  59. Lempert T, Olesen J, Furman J, Waterston J, Seemungal B, Carey J, Bisdorff A, Versino M, Evers S, Newman-Toker D
    Vestibular migraine: diagnostic criteria (update).
    Journal of Vestibular Research. 2022;32(1):1–6. doi:10.3233/VES-201644
  60. Lopez C, Blanke O
    The thalamocortical vestibular system in animals and humans.
    Brain Research Reviews. 2011;67(1–2):119–146. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2010.12.002
  61. Requena T, Espinosa-Sanchez JM, Cabrera S, Trinidad G, Soto-Varela A, Santos-Perez S, Teggi R, Perez P, Batuecas-Caletrio A, Fraile J, Aran I, Martin E, Benitez J, Pérez-Fernández N, Lopez-Escamez JA
    Familial clustering and genetic heterogeneity in Meniere's disease.
    Clinical Genetics. 2014;85(3):245–252. doi:10.1111/cge.12150
  62. Lopez-Escamez JA, Carey J, Chung WH, Goebel JA, Magnusson M, Mandalà M, Newman-Toker DE, Strupp M, Suzuki M, Trabalzini F, Bisdorff A
    Diagnostic criteria for Menière's disease. Consensus document of the Bárány Society, the Japan Society for Equilibrium Research, the European Academy of Otology and Neurotology (EAONO), the American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS) and the Korean Balance Society.
    Journal of Vestibular Research. 2015;25(1):1–7. doi:10.3233/VES-150549
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    Defining the clinical course of multiple sclerosis: the 2013 revisions.
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  64. Lui F, Tadi P, Anilkumar AC
    Wallenberg syndrome.
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  65. Lundberg YW, Xu Y, Thiessen KD, Kramer KL
    Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development.
    Developmental Dynamics. 2015;244(3):239–253. doi:10.1002/dvdy.24195
  66. Lysakowski A, Goldberg JM
    A regional ultrastructural analysis of the cellular and synaptic architecture in the chinchilla cristae ampullares.
    Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1997;389(3):419–443. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19971222)389:3<419::AID-CNE5>3.0.CO;2-3
  67. MacDougall HG, Weber KP, McGarvie LA, Halmagyi GM, Curthoys IS
    The video head impulse test: diagnostic accuracy in peripheral vestibulopathy.
    Neurology. 2009;73(14):1134–1141. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181bacf85
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    Cerebellar ataxias.
    Current Opinion in Neurology. 2009;22(4):419–429. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32832b9897
  69. Matsuda H, Sakamoto K, Matsumura T, Saito S, Shindo S, Fukushima K, Ikezono T
    Diagnosis and treatment of perilymphatic fistula.
    Acta Oto-laryngologica. 2018;138(11):983–989. doi:10.1080/00016489.2018.1476991
  70. Merchant SN, Adams JC, Nadol JB Jr
    Pathophysiology of Meniere's syndrome: are symptoms caused by endolymphatic hydrops?.
    Otology & Neurotology. 2005;26(1):74–81. doi:10.1097/00129492-200501000-00013
  71. Minor LB, Solomon D, Zinreich JS, Zee DS
    Sound- and/or pressure-induced vertigo due to bone dehiscence of the superior semicircular canal.
    Archives of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 1998;124(3):249–258. doi:10.1001/archotol.124.3.249
  72. Minor LB, Carey JP, Cremer PD, Lustig LR, Streubel SO, Ruckenstein MJ
    Dehiscence of bone overlying the superior canal as a cause of apparent conductive hearing loss.
    Otology & Neurotology. 2003;24(2):270–278. doi:10.1097/00129492-200303000-00023
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    Clinical manifestations of superior semicircular canal dehiscence.
    Laryngoscope. 2005;115(10):1717–1727. doi:10.1097/01.mlg.0000178324.55729.b7
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    Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2024 revisions of the McDonald criteria.
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    Visualization of endolymphatic hydrops in patients with Meniere's disease.
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  76. Neuhauser H, Leopold M, von Brevern M, Arnold G, Lempert T
    The interrelations of migraine, vertigo, and migrainous vertigo.
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    Migrainous vertigo: prevalence and impact on quality of life.
    Neurology. 2006;67(6):1028–1033. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000237539.09942.06
  78. Newman-Toker DE, Kattah JC, Alvernia JE, Wang DZ
    Normal head impulse test differentiates acute cerebellar strokes from vestibular neuritis.
    Neurology. 2008;70(24 pt 2):2378–2385. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000314685.01433.0d
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    HINTS outperforms ABCD2 to screen for stroke in acute continuous vertigo and dizziness.
    Academic Emergency Medicine. 2013;20(10):986–996. doi:10.1111/acem.12223
  80. Park GY, Byun H, Moon IJ, Hong SH, Cho YS, Chung WH
    Effects of early surgical exploration in suspected barotraumatic perilymph fistulas.
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  81. Phillips JS, Westerberg B
    Intratympanic steroids for Ménière's disease or syndrome.
    Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011;7:CD008514. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008514.pub2
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    Persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD): a common, characteristic and treatable cause of chronic dizziness.
    Practical Neurology. 2018;18(1):5–13. doi:10.1136/practneurol-2017-001809
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    Guidelines for the Early Management of Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association.
    Stroke. 2019;50(12):e344–e418. doi:10.1161/STR.0000000000000211
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    Intratympanic gentamicin for Ménière's disease or syndrome.
    Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011;3:CD008234. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008234.pub2
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    Surgery for Ménière's disease.
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    Vestibular migraine—validity of clinical diagnostic criteria.
    Cephalalgia. 2012;31(8):906–913. doi:10.1177/0333102411405228
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    Meniere's disease.
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    Propranolol and venlafaxine for vestibular migraine prophylaxis: a randomized controlled trial.
    Laryngoscope. 2016;126(1):169–174. doi:10.1002/lary.25445
  89. Savitz SI, Caplan LR
    Vertebrobasilar disease.
    New England Journal of Medicine. 2005;352(25):2618–2626. doi:10.1056/NEJMra041544
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    The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome.
    Brain. 1998;121(4):561–579. doi:10.1093/brain/121.4.561
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    Cupulolithiasis.
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    Comparison of transmastoid and middle fossa approaches for superior canal dehiscence repair: a multi-institutional study.
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    Curing the BPPV with a liberatory maneuver.
    Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. 1988;42:290–293. doi:10.1159/000416126
  94. Serra A, Chisari CG, Matta M
    Eye movement abnormalities in multiple sclerosis: pathogenesis, modeling, and treatment.
    Frontiers in Neurology. 2018;9:31. doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.00031
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    Alcohol-related cerebellar degeneration: not all down to toxicity?.
    Cerebellum & Ataxias. 2016;3:17. doi:10.1186/s40673-016-0055-1
  96. Staab JP, Eckhardt-Henn A, Horii A, Jacob R, Strupp M, Brandt T, Bronstein A
    Diagnostic criteria for persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD): consensus document of the committee for the Classification of Vestibular Disorders of the Bárány Society.
    Journal of Vestibular Research. 2017;27(4):191–208. doi:10.3233/VES-170622
  97. Stangerup SE, Caye-Thomasen P, Tos M, Thomsen J
    The natural history of vestibular schwannoma.
    Otology & Neurotology. 2010;27(4):547–552. doi:10.1097/01.mao.0000217356.73463.e7
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    Evidence for topographic organisation in the cerebellum of motor control versus cognitive and affective processing.
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  99. Strupp M, Arbusow V, Maag KP, Gall C, Brandt T
    Vestibular exercises improve central vestibulospinal compensation after vestibular neuritis.
    Neurology. 1998;51(3):838–844. doi:10.1212/wnl.51.3.838
  100. Strupp M, Zingler VC, Arbusow V, Niklas D, Maag KP, Dieterich M, Bense S, Theil D, Jahn K, Brandt T
    Methylprednisolone, valacyclovir, or the combination for vestibular neuritis.
    New England Journal of Medicine. 2004;351(4):354–361. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa033280
  101. Strupp M, Bisdorff A, Furman J, Hornibrook J, Jahn K, Maire R, Newman-Toker D, Magnusson M
    Acute unilateral vestibulopathy/vestibular neuritis: diagnostic criteria. Consensus document of the Committee for the Classification of Vestibular Disorders of the Bárány Society.
    Journal of Vestibular Research. 2022;32(5):389–406. doi:10.3233/VES-220201
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    Vestibular neuritis.
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  103. Talaat HS, Abuhadied G, Talaat AS, Abdelaal MS
    Low bone mineral density and vitamin D deficiency in patients with benign positional paroxysmal vertigo.
    European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. 2015;272(9):2249–2253. doi:10.1007/s00405-014-3175-3
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